Strangest planet ever discover

 The cosmos is full of secrets and mysteries. The deeper we gaze into the abyss, the more questions arise that modern science cannot yet answer. Today we have the honor of meeting two very, very, very, strange Planets; although even calling them planets is a difficult proposition. Objects cfbdsir 2149-0403, or more casually known as cf 21. This is probably one of the most incomprehensible things in this known universe. I feel like this one's just for us, and at just the right time. at first, this peculiar cosmic body was taken for a rogue planet meaning a planet that was somehow gravitationally ejected from its native system by other planets, or by some passing star. It was found a hundred light-years from Earth, discovered in 2012 by an international team of astronomers, Led by one Philippe Delorme the first studies showed that its mass is 5 to 9 times the mass of Jupiter, But the planet is hot... and it's not supposed to be...  but I'm getting ahead of myself. Let's do this in the proper order in general these orphan planets are a quite frequent phenomenon in the universe they are also sometimes placed in a group of objects known as Planum O scientists believe that in fact there are quite a lot of them and some of them are much closer to the earth than this mysterious recluse But they are extremely difficult to find because they often have zero luminosity so when Scientists found out that the possible rogue planet was hot the theory as to its being a planetary class body came into question To understand exactly what kind of game this is you need to turn to brown dwarfs for help Brown dwarfs are substellar objects that means smaller than a star Which doesn't have sufficient mass for pressure and temperature in the core to trigger thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium? like most stars to initiate a thermonuclear reaction based on hydrogen Thanks to which almost all stars shine you need something with about 80 times the mass of Jupiter

That's only about 8% of the mass of our Sun, but it's enough But only about 13 times the mass of Jupiter is enough to produce a thermonuclear reaction that confused lithium and deuterium so brown dwarfs are considered to be gas objects with a mass of between 13 and 82 Pater's think bigger than a planet smaller than a star if the mysterious object c21 weighs less than 13 Jupiter's Which it does as far as we can tell then it will most likely turn out to be a Jupiter like rogue planet Thrown out of its nest and drifting unobtrusively not far from us galactically speaking But wait it gets more interesting c21 glows in the infrared meaning it radiates heat into space a Young newly-formed planet is hot and glowing and it will glow until it cools and this cooling can last for millions of years According to the first observations after the discovery of this Mysterious object it seemed to be moving with a nearby group of stars called the a B - Radice moving group Scientists came to this conclusion because of its apparent proximity to this cluster And so surely our mysterious object must have flown from there all these stars indeed aratus Group are very young appeared around the same time and are in relative proximity to each other in the past They could have influenced each other gravitationally Changing the orbits of the planets of neighboring stars giving rise to the appearance of our plan mo That is if c21 came out of a bead iratus, then it is probably a young planet Which hasn't cooled down yet however after more detailed observations with the help of Europe's Very Large Telescope in Chile the Canada France, Hawaii Telescope the Spitzer Space Telescope and the use of the parallax effect which calculates more accurate distances to faraway Objects by taking measurements when the earth is in different places in its orbit around the Sun it turned out that c21 is about 130 light-years from Earth this is somewhat further than originally thought at First scientists assume that this little miracle object was about the same distance as the star system mentioned earlier about 75 light-years from Earth now far from all centers of star formation This possible planet can't possibly be young it must be over 500 million years old and if it is a plan amount it could be possibly exist there as Far as we know planets can only be formed in the orbit of stars add Fifty five light years away from a bead iratus, if it came from there flying for so long It would surely have had time to cool down But this does not necessarily correspond with reality

The temperature of the mysterious traveler is over 400 degrees And if it is almost two times farther than we thought that in fact it's even brighter, and if it is brighter that means it's heavier and according to refined calculations the mass of the object is between two and Thirteen masses of Jupiter the upper limit just allows it to start the most undemanding thermonuclear reaction on lithium All the same most likely the mass is less at about seven Jupiter's what the heck is going on here additionally studies have revealed that it has a high content of heavy elements all the elements that are not hydrogen and helium and usually brown dwarfs have fewer such elements But the presence of these elements in this case is too little for a planet so we cannot say with absolute certainty That this is a planet But almost all the data leads to this conclusion more observations are the only way to get a better understanding of this strange object research will continue our understanding of the universe will grow and knowledge will increase at this time. We don't understand what it is but sooner or later mankind will receive an answer to this question Perhaps you my dear viewers Have your own opinion as to what this strange object is you can write all your assumptions in the comments? I am looking forward to reading what you have to say in the meantime Let's move on to the next no less strange and still unexplained object Celt 11b is a giant plastic styrofoam planet. Yes, you heard that right It was discovered just recently and its amazing properties were quite the surprise this giant exoplanet located 320 light-years from Earth is Incredibly bloated it's 40 percent larger than our Jupiter But has only about 1/5 its mass Such an impressive size and an extremely low mass makes it similar in density to styrofoam, in Reality, there's no foam in the composition of the planet it's just an analogy this unusual fluffy world has the third-lowest density among all the Exoplanets that we have discovered of which we have managed to determine the exact mass and radius

I hope it will shed light on how these mysterious objects are born and what happens to them next in their evolution in addition to the unusual density Celt 11b has distinguished itself for something else in a very short time it will Disappear you see the exoplanet revolves around the super bright star Celt 11 which is in the process of? transitioning into a red giant This means that within the context of the thermonuclear Process the star has begun to burn hydrogen outside its core According to researchers the outer layers of the atmosphere of the Celt 11 star will expand over the next 100 million years and eventually the star will completely absorb the planet Celt 11 b and since our mysterious Exoplanet performs one revolution around its parent star in just five terrestrial days this means that it is Extraordinarily close to the star and hence the absorption will happen quite soon astronomically speaking But it's not all that bad due to the fact that Celt 11 is the brightest of the famous stars in our southern hemisphere Before its demise this strange foamy world will be able to tell us much about the composition of its atmosphere The transit method of searching for new exoplanets is one of the most popular among astronomers Due to the passage of a planet between its parent star and our telescopes the brightness of the observed star Decreases this indicates to scientists that an exoplanet can be in front of the star at that However the reduction in luminosity of the super-bright Celt 11 turned out to be so insignificant That this time astronomers could not immediately confirm the existence of the planet using the kilo degree extremely little telescope which consists of two robotic telescopes one in Arizona and the other in South Africa They work at the same time in unison as one hold telescope like giant binoculars the size of the earth astronomer Joshua pepper of the University of Pennsylvania Said the discovery was very challenging the original Celt observations of the star it's light curve Showed only a hint of the transit a little under 0.3% change in brightness it was very difficult to obtain reliable complete confirmation observations Thankfully new observations confirmed the existence of the mysterious exoplanet Scientists are now trying in every possible way to figure out what the secret of Celt 11b is Why is this planet so inflated so bloated and what generally causes such extreme density on other? Exoplanets the researchers have also taken up further study of the star Hoping to better understand how such stellar bodies behave at the end of their life cycle and of course I'm already eagerly awaiting the results of these newest studies in the meantime I'll go make a couple more insanely interesting episodes just for you Thanks for your attention and see you soon, my dear friends if you have any ideas for future episodes please leave them in the comments below the author of the best idea will have their name Presented in the video don't forget to put a thumbs up with my sincere gratitude

Asteroids : Bennu

 As we look farther into the universe thanever before, we may be looking deeper inside ourselves. One of the most surprising facts about ourrelationship with the larger solar system we live in, is that the organics in our bodywere most likely brought here to Earth on comets and asteroids. Rich in molecules called nucleobases, thesame molecules that make up our DNA, asteroids could be the key to unlocking the mysteryof life on Earth. And maybe the very origin of your body, ofthe chemistry that you're using to watch TV right now, came from the asteroids. One asteroid is especially intriguing. Its name? Bennu. In the case of Bennu, it's about half a kilometeracross rock. Bennu itself is an exciting object. It's a carbonaceous asteroid. Carbonaceous means that it contains the elementcarbon, which as we all know are, are associated with life. Bashar Rizk is a scientist at the Universityof Arizona. But it's not just the possibilities of lifethat makes Bennu interesting to Bashar. It's also the possibility of death. Bennu is in a class of asteroids that sharethe same region of space as the Earth as they move around the sun. Every six years, it's in the same generalregion as the Earth, that increases the opportunity that it would actually hit the Earth and causedamage. To understand whether Bennu truly poses arisk to Earth, we need to see it. In the mountains outside Tucson, Arizona,Eric Christensen searches the skies above earth for asteroids and comets. This object that's circled in red here inthe middle, it looks like a faint star, but it just happens to be the asteroid Bennu.

The Catalina sky survey is our first lineof defense against asteroid impacts. Asteroid impacts are really a fact of life. They always happen, they have always happened,they will always continue to happen. We will point our telescope at a particulararea of the sky, and we will build up over time, essentially a very low-resolution movie. We can compare the images and identify starsthat are stationary and then anything that is not stationary is a potential moving object. When astronomers discovered Bennu, they quicklyrealized that of all the near-Earth objects in their sights, this asteroid has one ofthe highest chances of impacting Earth. Bennu had come near the Earth, near enoughthat we could get radar reflection off of it, and therefore we know something aboutits shape. To fully understand where Bennu is going,Peter and Bashar need more than just fuzzy radar images. So, in September 2016, they will launch aspacecraft called OSIRIS REx. After two years of traveling through space,it will intercept the asteroid. Once there, its mission is two-fold. OSIRIS REx will collect a sample of the asteroidto return to Earth, and it will photograph the entire surface in extreme resolution,taking pictures down to the size of a pebble. Our cameras will go and try to characterizethe asteroid's environment. We're gonna image this object to a higherdegree of resolution over a larger piece of its terrain than has ever been done before. Mapping Bennu with these cameras is essential,because we'll understand the gravity of this object to a much more precise degree. Predicting where this object will be 100 yearsinto the future is very important, because this is one of the potentially most hazardousobjects in the solar system, for the Earth. To precisely determine Bennu's future orbit,scientists need to know the asteroid's exact size and shape. That's because of a phenomenon known as theYarkovsky Effect. Any object in the solar system experiencesthe Yarkovsky Effect. Now what is it? Well it's a, it's a thermal asymmetry thathappens because of the rotation of an object.

As the sun's energy strikes Bennu, it graduallychanges the asteroid's orbit. Things have had a chance to heat up. Now when something is hot, it tends to emitphotons, thermal ones. Photons carry momentum. So, what, what this is doing is acting likea little bit of a thrust in this direction. If I thrust that way, I'm kind of increasingthe energy of the orbit, and moving it out from the sun a little bit. The high-resolution images from OSIRIS RExwill tell the team exactly how the Yarkovsky Effect is influencing Bennu's path. If an object the size of Bennu struck theEarth, there would be a regional catastrophe, perhaps taking out as much as a state or severalstates. It could cause a lot of damage and the lossof a lot of life. Space is all about exploration, and it's somethingthat we humans seem to kinda be wired with. History's shown that you've got two choices. You can either keep marching ahead, or youcan fall behind and end up in the dustbin of history. Standing still is not an option. Revealing the deepest secrets from space caninspire wonder. But, they can also incite fear. This grainy image, shows an asteroid calledBennu, and it may be on a collision course with Earth. Odds of Bennu hitting the earth are less thanone in 2,000. That's still considered high for this classof object. Typical odds would hopefully be lower thanone in a million. Bennu is smaller than the asteroid that killedthe dinosaurs, but it could cause a tremendous amount of damage in the, the local area whereit hits. For instance, it could really damage somethingthe size of a, a large city or if it hit just offshore, it could create a tidal wave. In September 2016, Bashar and Peter will senda probe to photograph Bennu in detail and reveal its secrets. But a mission like this is fraught with potentialpitfalls. In August 2014, a spacecraft called Rosettaarrived at another small body, a comet, caught in Jupiter's gravity. Three months later, the Rosetta team attemptedto land a probe called Philae on the comet's surface, and it ended in disaster. Philae was equipped with a couple of harpoonsso that when it made its landing, they would shoot out and ideally try to moor it there. Except that, apparently, the harpoons didnot fire when Philae landed. So, because of that, Philae hit the surfaceand bounced, and it bounced several times because of the comet's rotation and, and thelander zone velocity. And it wound up coming down in an area ofthe comet that we didn't have good maps for, and so basically, the lander was lost. The team is determined to see their missionsucceed, that's because there is more to learn from Bennu than whether or not it will collidewith Earth. It could unlock the origins of life on ourplanet.

The Earth formed when objects slammed together. But later on, as it cooled, and water becamea large part of the surface composition, then it was possible for future impacts with smallerobjects to actually bring in organic materials that could survive on the surface. And that's how many people think organicscame to the Earth, is through those impacts from asteroids. When we get a sample of Bennu back into ourlaboratories, we're gonna be looking at material that formed in the initial phases of the formationof the solar system. If we could someday prove that the buildingblocks of life on Earth actually came from space and, and not from our own planet, itwould turn everything we understood about the origin of life on its head. OSIRIS REx will not attempt a landing likePhilae. Instead, it will get a sample of the asteroidwith a revolutionary new system called TAGSAM. TAG stands for Touch and Go and SAM is SampleAcquisition Maneuver. So TAGSAM is the actual act of reaching out,touching the surface of the asteroid, and gathering then sample, then pulling away. Once samples from Bennu arrive back on earth,we can test them for the kinds of organic materials that could have seeded Earth fourbillion years ago. But to successfully retrieve the sample, thecameras must function perfectly. The cameras are one of the critical experimentson this mission because as we get closer, it can refocus and actually becomes more likea microscope, and it can detect grains that are just a few millimeters across. So, when we get to our sample site, we wannaget the highest resolution possible. The OSIRIS REx camera suite consists of threecameras, a low resolution, medium resolution and high-resolution cameras, with overlappingfunctions that are meant to carry out, or fulfill the requirements for imaging for themission. We're trying to get deeper and deeper intohow the, the cameras work. The reason we're doing this test is to findout how the camera responds to different colors. 'Cause when we get to the asteroid, we wantto know when we take color pictures, what the true color of the asteroid is. Different minerals have different signaturesin this, in this manner.

Like, for example, rust is orange. Olivine crystal which you can find in sand,and volcanic glass, can be orange or yellow or green, and so just by looking at the colorof an object you can actually sort of tell what it is, very roughly. And the, the more finely you can parse outthose colors, the more narrow the, the color you can look at, the better you can tell whatan object is. So, by mapping colors of light, they'll beable to say "Where is the best place to send our probe so that we can the most scientificallyinteresting material that we possibly can to bring back to Earth?" Alright, can you hit the lights? Right, what we're about to do here is we'reabout to try to scan where we're gonna change the, the color of the light that's being sentinto this sphere that the camera is lookin at. And then the camera's gonna be taking picturesof the light, different colors, as the light is being scanned to characterize how sensitiveit is to those different wave lengths. In the last month and a half, we've had about15 different major tests, and I think that having been successfully completed, producesa big sigh of relief in everybody involved. The things that keep me up on a night arebig things. Things that we miss during the calibration. You don't know what you don't know. We are in an ever-present position of tryingto get rid of our, our fears and uncertainties about what might happen.

With only months to go until lift off, theclock is ticking to get OSIRIS REx right. We'll be launching in September of 2016. So, we have a schedule pressure here thatI think does take its toll on the team. There are a number of things that we're tryingout for the first time. And that keeps people up at night at NASA. Should the mission fail, NASA will need anotherway to reach Bennu. Scientist Ben Hockman created a backup planand to test it, he's hitting the beach. I think most people assume asteroids are justbig rocks in space. When in fact they have very interesting surfacegeology. We've found through recent missions that therecan be a wide variety of different surface features. With its mix of sand and rocks, this beachmimics terrain that NASA has observed on comets and asteroids. It is the perfect place to test Ben's rover,nicknamed Hedgehog. Hedgehog's a whole new class of rovers. Very different from the previous rovers thatwe've sent to the Moon and Mars. We have seen that the topology of asteroidscan be very uneven, so there's potential that a rover could fall into a pit, or a crater,and be unable to escape. Alright, hopefully this works. It may not look like much, but on an asteroid,where gravity is a tiny fraction of the Earth's, this same hop would propel Hedgehog far acrossthe surface. It uses three internal fly wheels to buildup momentum internally, and by doing that, it can hop and tumble across the surface. These spinning fly wheels build up momentum,and when Ben applies the brakes, he transfers that momentum into motion. Think about it like you're driving your bikeand you come to an obstacle, and you hit your front brakes. You have a lot of momentum about your frontwheels so you have a tendency to want to flip over your front wheel. The same is true for Hedgehog, but we do thatto our advantage, to hop in a controlled way. But to see how Hedgehog will work in a nearzero-G environment, Ben must head to the lab at Stanford University. So, this contraption is called our micro gravitytest bed. The micro gravity test bed allows us to emulatewhat the rover might do in actual micro gravity conditions. The bed shows Ben how Hedgehog will behaveon an asteroid like Bennu. At those scales, gravity is about 1,000 or10,000 times lower than that of Earth. So, on an asteroid, a human would weigh asmuch as a paper clip. One of the key advantages of Hedgehog is thatthere's no right way up. In other words, it can land on any side, andbe just as capable of moving as if it were to land on its feet so to say. And Hedgehog holds one other advantage. Because Hedgehog is so compact, and cheap,you can store potentially many of them in a spacecraft that you send to a small body,so you could imagine an army of Hedgehogs hopping around the surface, exploring thephysical properties of an asteroid. For now, Hedgehog is only a prototype, soit will be up to OSIRIS REx to unlock the secrets of Bennu. The answers won't come until late 2018, whenOSIRIS REx and its cameras finally reach the asteroid. I think the, the images of Bennu are goingto be revelatory. Waiting for those images to come back in 2018and 2019 will be... the only thing I could compare it to would be the, waiting for thebirths of my two children. Because something very important to you, andyou're not quite sure of the outcome. Until then, scientists can only wonder ifBennu will change our understanding of life on Earth. How did all that get going? Did it start here? Or was it brought here by, from outside? We don't really know the answer to that. We're gonna go find out.

The Solar System

 Our Solar System Have you ever looked up into the sky and wonderedwhat was there?

Higher than the birds, past the clouds, and farther than the moon, a wholehost of fascinating objects spin in outer space. Let's imagine for a moment that we can leavethe earth behind, and explore the solar system that surrounds it. We call it the solar system because everythingin it is centered around the sun, and solar means something to do with the sun. The sunis a star, just like many of the stars that you can see in the night sky - just many timescloser to us.

 Still, the sun is very, very far away from the earth; almost 93 millionmiles away: that's why it looks so small, even though it's the biggest object in thesolar system. In fact, the sun makes up more than 99 percent of the mass in the solar system.If you put all of the planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and everything else in the solar systemtogether, they would make up less than one quarter of a percent of it. The sun is so big that it's more than 100times wider than the earth, and if it were a giant jar you could fit more than one millionearths into it. More than that, the sun is what holds thesolar system together. Its massive gravity is what keeps the earth and all the otherplanets circling around it instead of drifting off into space. The sun is also what allows us to live onEarth. Without the sun, there would be no heat. There would be no light. Plants couldnot grow, water would freeze, and nothing could survive. The sun gives us heat and lightbecause it is always burning: it is a giant ball of gas, mostly hydrogen and helium, andit burns at millions of degrees in its center. 

Let's leave the sun now to explore the planets. As we move away from the sun, the first planetwe will encounter is mercury. Mercury is the smallest planet in the solar system, muchsmaller than earth, and one of only five planets you can see from earth using nothing but youreyes. Of course, it won't look much like a planet. It looks more like a bright star,and many nights you can see it close to the horizon near sunrise and sunset. Mercury is a lot like our moon. It's smalland has a rocky surface with craters on it. It has no moon of its own, and no air to breathe.You probably wouldn't enjoy a visit to mercury, since temperatures are boiling hot in thesun and freezing cold in the shade. Something interesting about mercury is that it is thefastest planet to go around the sun - it only takes 88 days. Next is Venus, the second planet. Some peoplecall venus earth's sister, because the two planets are very close in size and gravity,but they are very different on the surface. First of all, it is very hot. Venus is thehottest planet in the solar system. It's not as close to the sun as mercury, but its thickatmosphere of carbon dioxide helps it to trap the heat and stay warmer than its neighbor.

It has a thick atmosphere, but it is not one you could breathe. It is mostly made of carbondioxide and there are clouds of sulfuric acid! Venus might not be fun to visit, but it isbeautiful to lok at. It is the second-brightest object in the night sky - the only thing brighteris the moon. If you are looking at a sunrise or a sunset and suddenly notice what lookslike a very bright star, you are probably looking at Venus. After Venus comes Earth, the third planetfrom the sun. Of course, you know all about Earth, because that's the planet where welive! Earth is what's called a 'goldilocks planet,' because it's not too hot, and nottoo cold - it's just right. As far as we know, Earth is the only planet to have living things. Let's leave earth again for a moment, though,and visit Mars, the fourth planet from the sun. Mars is known as the 'red planet,' becauseiron oxide (a material like rust) in the soil gives it a reddish color. Mars is smallerthan Venus and the earth, but larger than mercury. It is cold and rocky, with a thinatmosphere made of carbon dioxide and oxygen. There is water ice on mars. Scientists are very interested in mars becausethey think that people could live there with the help of some special equipment. Rocketsand probes have already been sent there to gain more information about the planet. Rightnow, there are two special robots exploring the surface of mars, sending information backto earth. Mars is the first planet we've visited todaybesides Earth to have its own moons.

 It has two, although they are not big and round likeour moon. Mars's moons are small and irregular. Scientists think they may be captured asteroids.Maybe they came from the big asteroid belt that is between mars and jupiter. An asteroidbelt is a big ring of asteroids, or rocky objects, orbiting the sun. Jupiter comes next, the fifth planet in thesolar system. Jupiter is the largest planet and is something called a 'gas giant.' Itis called this because it is really big and made mostly of gasses. Jupiter is so big thatyou would have to place 11 earths end to end just to stretch across its middle. Jupiter is also the third brightest objectin the night sky; only venus and the moon are brighter. You can usually find Jupiterhigher in the sky than venus, since Jupiter is away from the sun and not towards it. Jupiter has at least 67 moons that circlearound it, but 55 of them are very small, only about as big as a mountain, or smaller.Some of its moons are very large, and at least two of them are about the same size as theplanet Mercury.

 One of its moons is the largest moon in the solar system. Someof these large moons can be seen from earth in your backyard with a telescope. People cannot land on Jupiter because it ismade of gas - there is no ground to land on! Even if there was somewhere to land, Jupiteris covered by terrible storms, much stronger than even the strongest storms on earth. Onestorm that we know about can be seen from earth. We call it the great red spot becausethat's what it looks like - and it has been going on for at least 200 years! After Jupiter comes Saturn, another gas giant.Saturn is famous for its beautiful rings. Although they look solid from a distance,the rings are actually made from many, many small ice particle, as well as rocks and dust. Saturn also has more than sixty moons orbitingaround it, some as large as the planet mercury, and many smaller. Something interesting about Saturn is thateven though it is very large, it is not very dense. That means that if you could find abathtub large enough to put saturn in, it would float instead of sink! Saturn is the farthest planet that can beseen from earth without the help of a telescope. After saturn comes uranus, the seventh planetfrom the sun. Uranus is another gas giant, but it is much smaller than Saturn and Jupiter.Unlike any other planet in the solar system, it is tilted so much that it actually spinssideways! Uranus has rings around it, although they are much smaller than saturn's, and 27known moons. Uranus is covered in blue clouds made of methane, which give it its lovelycolor. 

Very similar to uranus is Neptune, the eighthplanet from the sun. Neptune is another gas giant, and like uranus it has methane in itsatmosphere so it also looks blue. Neptune is a darker blue than uranus and scientistsaren't sure why. Neptune has a few thin rings and 14 moons that we know about. Because neptune is so far out in space, ittakes it a very, very long time to go around the sun. Remember Mercury, that only takes88 days to go once around the sun? Poor neptune takes over 164 YEARS to finish an orbit aroundthe sun. The last time that neptune was in the same place it is now was before the AmericanCivil War, before computers, phones, airplanes, or cars had been invented! Neptune has thelongest orbit of any planet in the solar system. Now, you may think that I've forgotten someone- Pluto. Pluto was discovered in 1930 and was listed as the ninth planet in the solarsystem. As it was studied longer, scientists realized how small it is. It is much smallerthan any other planet in the solar system, and even smaller than many other moons. Plus,people started to discover other small, rocky planet-like objects in space near pluto. Someof them were even bigger than pluto! In 2006, after 76 years being listed as a planet, Plutowas declared a 'dwarf planet' to show that it was something that was like a planet, butmuch smaller. There are at least 6 dwarf planets in the solar system, and possibly many, manymore. That leaves us with 8 official planets inour solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. I hope you enjoyed exploring the solar systemwith me today. Goodbye till next time! 

Black Hole

 We know that gravity is the forceful rope by which a small body, such as earth, is tethered to a massive body, like the Sun. However, in the late 1960s, in the constellation Cygnus, astronomers found a star revolving around Nothing. They were convinced that they had just discovered a Black Hole. Black holes are one of the few natural phenomena that were mathematically predicted first and only observed later. They were first predicted in the 1780s by natural philosopher Jon Michell Who suggested that the gravity of a sufficiently dense star could be so great that even light emitted by it would be unable to escape its pull.

 The discovery in Cygnus relieved astronomers or else they would have been labeled as crazy to believe in an object so massive that it was actually invisible. Because Michelle's star doesn't emit any light it wouldn't look like this, but perhaps something, like this. This is why they're called black holes, because that's what they are: a black void in space. To understand why a star would become so withdrawn, we must look at its rough childhood. A star is born when gravity forces a huge volume of mostly hydrogen gas to collapse in on itself. This compression increases the temperature of the gas, causing its atoms to violently collide with each other. These collisions further heat the gas until the hydrogen atoms don't collide in ricochet, but instead coalesce to form helium atoms. The mass of a helium atom is less than the combined mass of two hydrogen atoms. The remaining mass is released as energy, the magnitude of which is given by einstein's famous e equals mc-squared equation. The energy released might be small for two coalescing atoms, but for billions and billions of them, the cumulative release is tremendous. This, same principle that makes a star shine is replicated inside a devastating hydrogen bomb, albeit in a more controlled manner. 

To survive, the star's expansion driven by the explosion must neutralize the compression driven by its gravity. Eventually, however, the star will run out of fuel. All the hydrogen has fused to form helium, all of which then fuse to form carbon and so on until iron is finally synthesized. Iron refuses to fuse any further, so the star is now jammed packed with heavy elements. With no more fuel to burn, the star begins to cool, and with no heat to combat the compression, it begins to contract. In 1928, during his voyage from India to England, Chandrashekhar realized that a star could survive if the gravity's contraction were counteracted, by the repulsive forces between its clustered matter. 

We now call such stars "White Dwarfs". These stars are hundreds of tons per cubic inch dense, as all the mass is packed in the sphere of just one thousand miles in diameter. However, if the star were any denser, its gravity would overcome even the repulsion forces between the electron. He calculated that a cold star 1.5 times the mass of the sun would undergo further contraction. Yet, it could hold on to life by neutralizing gravity's pressure with it repulsive forces between its neutrons and protons. Such a star is thus known as a "Neutron Star". These are millions of tons per cubic-inch dense, as all the masses packed into a sphere nearly twenty miles in diameter! However, what would happen if a star were to be even denser? After arriving in England when Chandrashekhar showed his results to Arthur Eddington, the astronomer couldn’t believe that a star could become infinitely dense. He refused to believe that a star, like the Sun, could collapse to a single point! The 1960s, Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose predicted that an even denser star would contract into a point of infinite density and thus spacetime curvature, a point where all known laws of physics break down. 

This point is called a Singularity. The star becomes a “black hole” because a singularity distorts the spacetime around it so severely that any light falling into the pit is held captive…forever. Nothing escapes it. The boundary where the pit begins is known as the black hole’s event horizon. It is imperative to understand that black holes don’t suck everything up like a galactic vacuum cleaner. If a massive or supermassive black hole the mass of the Sun were to replace it, we’d continue revolving undisturbed. Survival, however, would not be guaranteed. So, we developed a mathematically rigorous model of a black hole, but how is one supposed to find evidence of its existence? How is one supposed to find, as Hawking asks, a black cat in a dark room? Then we pointed our telescope towards the constellation Cygnus. Cygnus X-1 is one of the strongest sources of X-rays visible from Earth. Astronomers realized that matter from the rotating star was being blown off into orbit around its invisible companion.

 The rotation caused it to heat so greatly that it gave off X-rays. The unseen thing, however, didn’t necessarily have to be a black hole; it was equally likely to be a massive star that was simply too faint to be visible. However, with the knowledge of the dynamics of the star’s orbit, astronomers determined the object’s mass to be six times that of the Sun.... The object was far too massive to be a white dwarf or a neutron star. While we lack any explicit evidence due to its withdrawn nature, we have a multitude of indirect evidence suggesting that Cygnus X-1 is definitely a black hole. Stephen Hawking believed that the Universe is replete with such black holes. He audaciously speculated that the number of black holes is greater than the number of visible stars in the sky. Surely, millions of stars have exhausted their fuel during the billions of years that this Universe has existed. Supermassive black holes, billions of times the mass of the Sun, are believed to exist at the center of our Milky Way galaxy, and probably every galaxy there is.

 What’s more astonishing is that Hawking, who went on to occupy the prestigious Lucasian Chair at Cambridge once held by Newton, showed that black holes aren’t so black after all. He found that they emit very tiny amounts of radiation that we now call Hawking radiation! A black hole radiates particles and eventually vanishes, but it takes billions and billions of years for a black hole to completely evaporate. Lastly, a singularity is the most notorious phenomenon in the Universe. No one knows what mystery lies at the bottom of the pit, but it seems to combine the final two pieces of physics. Its large-scale properties concern the classical General Relativity, while its point size concerns the microscopic field of Quantum Mechanics. Together these combine to form the Theory of Everything. For over 60 years, no one, including Einstein, has been able to fully grasp the solution. It would combine every minute discovery that man has made throughout his quest for knowledge. The Theory of Everything will undoubtedly be the greatest triumph of human reason. 

The Sun

 While billions of stars are scattered throughout the universe the one at the center of our solar system Plays a special role for us here on earth our Sun formed about 4.5 billion years ago in the Milky Way galaxy's Orion's fur It was born when a cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula Collapsed and in the middle of this formation matter condensed into a burning ball of gas that became our Sun The sun's fiery nature along with a tremendous gravitational pull and an extensive magnetic field Helped it to become the heart of our solar system 

The Sun can be divided into six layers or regions the corona the chromosphere the photosphere the convective and radiative zones and the core in terms of atom count the Sun is about 91% hydrogen the sun's fuel eight point nine percent helium and point one percent heavier elements such as carbon and nitrogen Due to the sun's extreme temperatures these elements stay in a gas like phase called plasma In the core temperatures reaching at least 27 million degrees Fahrenheit Combined with the sun's powerful gravity fused together hydrogen molecules to create helium Called thermonuclear fusion this releases an enormous amount of energy in the form of radiation Electricity solar wind and as we experience on earth Life-giving heat and light Such volatility is contained. Thanks to the sun's tremendous gravity It's strong enough to hold the solar system intact and is primarily due to the sun's size and mass Our Sun is the largest and most massive object in the solar system it's more than 100 earths wide and Could theoretically fit all eight planets inside nearly 600 times It also contains approximately ninety-nine point eight percent of all the mass in the solar system

 Because of this mass the Sun has a great pull on the fabric of space Creating a gravitational force that causes nearby planetary bodies to be drawn toward it This gravitational pull allows the Sun to hold together a system of eight planets potentially dozens of dwarf planets at least 170 moons and countless comets and asteroids Without the sun's gravity these celestial bodies would drift off into deep space Another critical property of the Sun is its magnetic field which encapsulates the entire solar system Called the heliosphere this force field protects the planets from harmful cosmic radiation It's caused by the sun's plasma pushing electrically charged particles toward the Stars poles This process turns the Sun into a giant magnet Although the sun's magnetic field is invisible to the naked eye Its effects are noticeable On the sun's surface are dark areas called sunspots, which marked strong pockets of magnetism on Earth and on some of the other planets the sun's magnetic field interacts with their atmospheres resulting in beautiful Aurora's Despite its size and strength the Sun will not last forever in about 6.5 billion years it will run out of its hydrogen fuel Expand to envelop Mercury Venus and even earth and then collapse into a small star known as a white dwarf in The meantime the Sun will continue to play a critical role in the system that bears its name the Suns protected magnetic field Tremendous gravitational pull and ability to create vast amounts of energy will protect Contain and give life to our solar system 

SpaceX : Misson to the Mars

 This is a two-part collaboration with times infinity in part one We discussed how and when SpaceX plans to travel to Mars And now we're going to look at what SpaceX could do on Mars in the quest to make humans a multi planetary Civilization if you've not seen part one, make sure you check it out after this video So we have achieved the biggest feat of mankind We have arrived at Mars our nearest chance of a realistic second home in the universe. So now what what his SpaceX got planned to get us cosy and settled in a Start by looking at Elon original plan for a Mars mission way back in 2001 where the goal for Mars was much simpler at that time SpaceX didn't even exist and the plan was to send a greenhouse to Mars with the goal of inspiring humans with images of life growing on a barren red planet over 100 million kilometres away However, the price of reaching his goal was well over 60 million dollars just to launch his dream into space So after several failed negotiations for a rocket Elon decided to do it himself and to start his journey for his own space company which we now know as SpaceX over time the plan for what SpaceX would do on Mars took on a much more grand scale with a vision shifting from inspiring people back on earth to directly settling and colonizing Mars the plans at first was secretive and only discussed his comments from Elon himself as early as 2007 Elon express interest in one day exploring and colonizing Mars rough timelines were drawn up in the mid 2010 with an aspirational goal of humans on Mars by early 2020 by 2013 many more details were known with the name of the Mars colonial transporter given it was determined 

It would ferry people to and from Mars as the most powerful rocket ever built by 2015 the plans were publicly announced and a vision of a million people on Mars began to show just how much more massive division SpaceX had for Mars had grown SpaceX now had plans not only to land humans on Mars, but to fully settle colonize and terraform the planet in the long run so once on Mars What options do we have for setting up the initial infrastructure and a base? The first tour SpaceX is Mars missions will be uncrewed cargo ships that will be tasked with finding natural resources that can be used in future missions and to provide fuel for starship to make two-way trips with ease these missions will also bring vital initial supplies like power generating machines and life-support systems for the first humans to use Further missions will then send manned and unmanned Starships to set up propellant production plants that will turn water ice and carbon dioxide Into usable fuel for the starship in the form of liquid methane and liquid oxygen These steps will be vital for the longer term two-way transportation of humans and cargo to set up infrastructure on the Red Planet So what about a base? How will that work? Hey beautiful viewer just before we go on sure Click subscribe in the bar icon for more videos now back to the video.

 Enjoy Starship itself could be a very interesting option for a Mars base at 50 meters in height large cargo bays and being made of useful building materials It would seem like a very attractive option using it for a Mars base. However, there are some drawbacks Starship is designed to be fully reusable like a jet liner Imagine decommissioning a brand-new airplane after a single flight the cost to fly on that plane would be enormous Outside of simply using starship as a base The logical process will most likely be building outwards from the initial propellant production plants Forming larger colonies into towns and eventually fully functioning and habitable cities Starships will arrive intermittently as and when the two planets are in close proximity On their individual orbits of the Sun and with every arrival more power industrial Mining and farming resources will be available fees on the ground as for the location of possible first settlements it's thought that five sites have been marked in between the areas of Arcadia Planitia and Amazonas Planitia west of the highest mountain in the solar system now to olympus mons Even though there is more ice readily available at the polls This location is preferred as is on a huge low elevation plane and will be within 40 degrees of the planets equator So it will have a relatively good temperature for Mars and still have abundant amounts of surface ice and potential buried glaciers that could be tapped into Another point of interest here is the fact that there are extinct underground lava chambers here that can be tunneled into to make colonies Partially underground and help protect from the worst of the solar radiation on Mars SpaceX will not be making this alone But will be teaming up with NASA and other commercial space companies Who are already creating concepts of how every step of this will work and look and reality? Imagine being out to design your own Martian city Or do you include an earth museum a 200-foot statue of Elon maybe the first Martian football stadium What would they even be called? Red Rovers FC.

 Let us know your Martian team name below Okay, maybe we're getting a bit carried away here. Maybe just the essentials first, right? but why not dream and the possibilities one company that may work closely with SpaceX has set up some of the initial Infrastructure on Mars is Tesla Tesla was founded by Elon Musk and could share a lot of vital technology for a Mars base In the latest starship update in October of 2019. A question was asked whether Tesla would develop Rovers for Martian missions However, it was clarified that since the cars were electric They fear ethically could be driven on Mars with minimal configuration Already what this shows is that the possibility of driving at Tesla Mars Could one day become reality power generation of Mars is a very important topic for the long term viability of the Mars base 

There are several methods that could be used to power Martian base But SpaceX have so far kept their plans vague So far two plans have been proposed nuclear energy and solar power And the distance Mars is from the Sun solar power generation could be weaker but deploying thousands of solar reflectors in space could redirect sunlight to the surface of the planet and would allow for sufficient power to come from the Planet through artificial means also solar mirrors could be useful for another purpose as we will see later on Ultimately, the vision for Mars is to make it a second home for Humanity to do this We will need to give it earth-like conditions the process of turning Mars into an like planet is called Terraforming facex has floated some ideas of how this process could be done One of these options takes terraforming the ecosystem of a planet to an extreme by using nuclear weapons nuclear Weapons could be aimed at the poles of Mars where there are vast deposits of frozen carbon dioxide Deposits stored away by the freezing cold temperatures by releasing these vast deposits of gas into the atmosphere It could make conditions more earth-like on the red planet while this would not complete the process of terraforming it could significantly Speed it up and provide a handy alternative use for our nuclear arsenals SpaceX has envisioned that placing thousands of mirrors in Mars orbit aimed at the poles Could heat up the planet at specific spots where carbon dioxide is frozen it would both raise the pressure and temperature of Mars however several studies have shown that this increase in temperature and pressure may not be enough and the best it may allow is thinner suits and more incoming energy on the planet Elon Musk has said a thousand starship missions will be needed to create a Sustainable city on Mars and this could take a while as the planets only align once every two years He is estimated over the next 20 years He will be able to transport 1 million tons of cargo to Mars, which should be enough to establish the first Mars base Do you think Elon can do it? And if so, would you move to Mars? Let us know below now over to times infinity where we will discuss the mission to Mars Our SpaceX plans to do this and Apparel's of space travel. We will encounter link here and in the description below Make sure you subscribe to both of our channels and leave a like if you enjoyed the video 

Mangalyaan :-By ISRO comlete misson

 Some of you may have heard of the amazingfeat produced by the ISRO, or India’s space agency, where they successfully inserted aprobe into Mars’ orbit on the first time of trying, for a relatively miniscule 66 milliondollars back in 2014. This made it the first space agency in theworld to have a successful Mars mission on the first time of trying, plus it is the firstAsian agency to get to Mars. This by itself is pretty impressive, but it’sbeen in orbit for over 5 years now, so what has it done and seen around Mars? And has it contributed anything beyond whatthe NASA and ESA missions have already achieved? I’m Alex McColgan, and you’re watchingAstrum, and together we will investigate the findings and imagery of the Mangalyaan missionto Mars. Mangalyaan launched from India in 2013, onboardan ISRO rocket designed to insert satellites into orbit around Earth. As the rocket didn’t have the thrust neededto get Mangalyaan to Mars, the probe had to use some of its own fuel to leave Earth orbit,which it achieved gradually over several orbits. Upon arriving at Mars, it was inserted intoa highly elliptical orbit. At its furthest point, Mangalyaan is almost80,000km from Mars, and its closest approach takes it only 420km above its surface.

 This orbit is much different from NASA’sMars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which remains close to the Martian surface in order to imagethe surface at a much higher resolution. This is due to the different science goalsof the missions. Mangalyaan does seem like more of a technologydemonstration mission, although scientific instruments onboard had a particular focusto study Mars’ upper atmosphere. However, what I really like about this missionis that they put a pretty normal camera onboard to image the Martian surface. This means the raw images are true colourimages, seeing Mars as you would see it if you were in orbit. Having a highly elliptical orbit also meanswe can get a view of the whole of Mars in one go, reminiscent of the old NASA Vikingmissions, and I must say that at this distance, Mars is a beautiful planet. 

The carbon dioxide and water ice caps arevisible at the planet’s poles. Various shades of rock sediment and dust patchesacross the surface provide an interesting contrast. Craters of various sizes span the planet. And of course, some of Mars’ most interestingfeatures are visible, like its long dormant shield volcanoes and huge valley structures. What’s also visible, even from this distance,are some of the Mars’ famous giant dust storms. In this image, the dust storm spans thousandsof kilometres across the northern hemisphere. These storms can last weeks to months, almostcompletely blocking sunlight from reaching the surface under the densest parts. Storms like these caused big issues for thesolar powered rovers Opportunity and Spirit. Some smaller storms can also be seen in someof the other global views of Mars. Orographic clouds are often seen over thevolcanoes of Mars. And yes, these are water ice clouds. Although the atmosphere of Mars is a lot thinnerthan on Earth, and most of its water has been lost, there is a still a small amount of watervapour in the atmosphere.

 And in this image, we see three smaller volcanoes,with orographic clouds forming over Elysium Mons, the centre volcano. Orographic clouds form when air is forcedhigher as it moves over high terrain. During a closer approach over Elysium Mons,clouds are still visible, but more apparent are these trenches around the volcanoes. These are called fossae, trenches formed bythe stretching of the plate they reside on, often caused on Mars by the sheer weight ofthe nearby plate volcanoes. The fossae widen as more material falls in. Think of it like a series of connected sinkholeson Earth, but instead of material being eroded under the surface causing the pit to openup like on Earth, on Mars the cause is due to a fault under the surface, sometimes upto 5 km deep. A close-up examination of one of a fossa revealssomething interesting, right in the middle of this image, you can see what appears tobe a tall, wavy structure. 

Mangalyaan inadvertently captured a giantdust devil, the shadow of which stretches out for several kilometres. Once you notice that one, you’ll realisethere’s actually a few in the image, each with a long windy shadow. Orographic clouds have also been seen overOlympus Mons, the tallest volcano in the solar system. From the base to the peak, Olympus Mons isthree times taller than Everest, and is 600km wide. As a result, it is easily visible and recognisableeven from this altitude. From this view, you can also easily see wherelava from ancient eruptions has flowed down onto the plains surrounding the volcano. Looking a bit further across, you see threemore big shield volcanoes, with a few more smaller ones to the north. You’ll also start to notice, this weirdpatch which looks almost like a labyrinth, aptly called Noctis Labyrinthus. In a similar vein to the Elysium fossae, NoctisLabyrinthus is thought to have formed because of the huge volcanoes to the north west, butthis time due perhaps to collapsed magma chambers deep under the surface. Research is ongoing! Connected to Noctis Labyrinthus is the famousscar of Mars, Valles Marineris. What I really love about these images is thatjust like the Viking missions, water ice fog can be seen filling the chasm. This valley is 4000km across, and channelsseem to flow out of it to the east into chaos regions, similar but smaller than Noctis Labyrinthus. This hemisphere of Mars is lower than therest, which indicates these outflow channels, which do look a lot like river channels onEarth, flowed into a once ocean. 

Ground based rovers have since uncovered furtherevidence for this ocean, finding hydrated minerals in these regions. Another really interesting visual landmarkon Mars is Kasei Valles, north of Valles Marineris. Again, this shows a very interesting outflowchannel, starting in the east and flowing to the west, depositing into the same regionbut further north than Valles Marineris in the south. Most scientists propose these channels werecarved out by mega-flooding events in the distant past, when liquid water was abundanton the Martian surface. There’s also some argument that glacierscarved out these channels. In fact, there are a lot of outflow regionsheading into this once ocean, here’s Ares Vallis, again probably carved out by mega-floodingevents. All these channels are too wide to have supporteda constant river system, at least at this size. A very large, yet odd, crater-like structurecan be seen from the Mangalyaan images. This is Orcus Patera, 380km long at its longestpoint. Scientists are a bit baffled about how thiscould have formed. Craters are always circular, plus Orcus Pateraisn’t very deep at only 500m. Volcanic activity could be a cause, but there’sno caldera, and so there have been no theories that scientists can settle on so far. What do you think it could be? Some of the images focusing on the limb ofthe planet have also been able to see Mars’ atmosphere, which I think is quite beautiful. Some very oblique shots can even see a cloudlayer high in the Martian atmosphere. And due to Mangalyaan’s elliptic orbit,sometimes Mars’ moon Phobos comes between the planet and the probe, imaged here againstthe backdrop of the planet. The last thing I want to showcase in thisvideo is the prevailing wind direction on some parts of the planet. Even though we are quite zoomed out by here,in this image, showing a few thousand kilometres across, we can easily see where craters haveblocked the darker dust from moving across the surface with the wind. The wind direction in these parts must havebeen like this for a while for it to be so noticeable from space. A closer look at the surface shows how thiseffect can happen with smaller craters too. I’ve really enjoyed making this video, lookingat a far more zoomed out view of Mars than what the HiRISE camera on NASA’s MRO couldprovide.

 This has meant we could explore some of Mars’largest features as a whole, what they actually look like from orbit, and not zoomed in sections. I believe both types of missions have theirplace to further our understanding of our perhaps most intriguing neighbour. This video also coincides with the launchof the Astrum Hindi channel, so if you come from India and want to see dubbed Astrum videosin Hindi, you can check them out with the link in the description! Did you enjoy learning about what Mangalyaansaw today? As you can see, learning about science - ormaths for that matter – doesn’t have to be dull, in fact, if it wasn’t for mathsand science, missions like this one wouldn’t be possible! Want to know how it was done? Brilliant have a ton of interactive and engagingcourses for ambitious and curious people, who want to excel at problem solving and understandingthe world, and space. They have courses that will ease you intophysics and maths, using real-world scenarios to help to conceptualise and realise the problems. So give it a go! You can sign up for free today, and by usingthe link brilliant.org/astrum/ you can get 20% off their annual Premium subscriptionto get unlimited access to all of Brilliant's interactive math, science and computer sciencecourses. Thanks for watching! Want a more close-up view of Mars? Check out our Mars HiRISE series here. And a big thank you to those that supportthe channel through Patreon or Youtube’s membership. If you would like to support too, find thelink in the description! All the best, and see you next time. 

Alien does survive

Lead humanity forward. <i>Two possibilities exist:</i> <i>Two possibilities exist: either we are alone in the universe,</i> <i>Two possibilities exist: either we are alone in the universe, or we are not.</i> <i>Two possibilities exist: either we are alone in the universe, or we are not.Both are equally terrifying.</i> <i>Two possibilities exist: either we are alone in the universe, or we are not.Both are equally terrifying.</i>Arthur C. Clarke <i>Two possibilities exist: either we are alone in the universe, or we are not.Both are equally terrifying.</i>Arthur C. ClarkeIn all of time, In all of time, on all the planets of all the galaxies in space. what civilizations have risen, looked into the night, seen what we see, asked the questions that we ask? "Are we alone?" "Is Earth the only chapter in the story of life?" "The answers lie somewhere in distant space - and distant time." "For the first time, the truth is finally within our reach." "The search will reveal who we are" "and who we might become." LIFE LIFE BEYOND <b>CHAPTER I</b> <b>CHAPTER I</b>The Dawn "In the search for life out there, we must first look inward." What we see around us is staggering complexity. How is it possible? "What does it take to create life?" "What does it take to create life?"Living organisms are created by chemistry.

 Living organisms are created by chemistry. We are huge packages of chemicals. And what are the ideal conditions for chemistry? Well, first, you need energy. <b>I</b>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IE</b>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IEN</b>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IENE</b>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IENER</b>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IENERG</b>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IENERGY</b>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IENERGY</b><i>e.g </i>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IENERGY</b><i>e.g Sunlight,</i>Well, first, you need energy. <b>IENERGY</b><i>e.g Sunlight,</i> <b>IENERGY</b><i>e.g Sunlight, Geothermal Heat</i> <b>IENERG</b><i>e.g Sunlight, Geothermal Heat</i> <b>IENER</b><i>e.g Sunlight, Geothermal Heat</i> <b>IENE</b><i>e.g Sunlight, Geothermal Heat</i> <b>IEN</b><i>e.g Sunlight,</i> <b>IE</b><i>e.g</i> <b>IE</b> <b>I</b> But not too much.

 What you want is just the right amount and planets it turns out are just right, because they are close to stars, but not too close. You also need a great diversity <b>II</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHE</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEA</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAV</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY E</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY EL</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY ELE</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY ELEM</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY ELEME</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY ELEMEN</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY ELEMENT</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY ELEMENTS</b>You also need a great diversity <b>IIHEAVY ELEMENTS</b><i>e.g</i>of chemical elements. <b>IIHEAVY ELEMENTS</b><i>e.g Oxygen,</i>of chemical elements. <b>IIHEAVY ELEMENTS</b><i>e.g Oxygen, Carbon,</i>of chemical elements. <b>IIHEAVY ELEMENTS</b><i>e.g Oxygen, Carbon, Sulfur</i>of chemical elements. <b>IIHEAVY ELEMENTS</b><i>e.g Oxygen, Carbon, Sulfur</i> <b>IIHEAVY ELEMENT</b><i>e.g Oxygen, Carbon, Sulfur</i> <b>IIHEAVY ELEMEN</b><i>e.g Oxygen, Carbon, Sulfur</i> <b>IIHEAVY ELEME</b><i>e.g Oxygen, Carbon,</i> <b>IIHEAVY ELEM</b><i>e.g Oxygen, Carbon,</i> <b>IIHEAVY ELE</b><i>e.g Oxygen, Carbon,</i> <b>IIHEAVY EL</b><i>e.g Oxygen,</i> <b>IIHEAVY E</b><i>e.g</i> <b>IIHEAVY</b> <b>IIHEAV</b> <b>IIHEA</b> <b>IIHE</b> <b>IIH</b> <b>II</b> <b>I</b> And you need liquid, such as water. <b>III</b>such as water. <b>IIIL</b>such as water. <b>IIILI</b>such as water. <b>IIILIQ</b>such as water. 

<b>IIILIQU</b>such as water. <b>IIILIQUI</b>such as water. <b>IIILIQUID</b>such as water. <b>IIILIQUID</b>such as water. <b>IIILIQUID</b><i>e.g</i>such as water. <b>IIILIQUID</b><i>e.g Water</i>such as water. III<b>LIQUID</b>e.g. water Why? Well, in gases, atoms move past each other so fast that they can't hitch up. In solids, atoms are stuck together. They can't move. In liquids, they can cruise and cuddle and link up to form molecules. Liquid water is just so good for getting evolution going. Molecules can dissolve in the water to form more complex chains. Now, where do you find such goldilocks conditions? Well, planets are great, and our early Earth was almost perfect. Earth Earth4 Billion Years Ago It was just the right distance from its star to contain huge oceans of liquid water. And deep beneath those oceans, at cracks in the Earth's crust, fantastic chemistry began to happen atoms combined in all sorts of exotic combinations. "The exact recipe is still a mystery, but the ingredients for lifeare simple - energy, organic molecules, and liquid water." "Somewhere in the seas of early Earth, basic chemistry became biology - perhaps even more than once." "The first cells were likely born in hot volcanic waters,in conditions once thought impossible for biology." "The closer we study life, the more extreme places we find it thriving." "The closer we study life, the more extreme places we find it thriving."Here on our planet, Here on our planet, microbes have adapted to survive the most hostile conditions.

 Arid deserts, the frozen Himalayas, in trenches under thousands of tons of pressure in the ocean deeps. In the vacuum of a space simulator, life forms have been flourishing for years without oxygen. "New research suggests that life emerged over 4 billion years ago,when Earth was an alien and deadly place." "The planet was ravaged by intense volcanism and an asteroid storm that lasted 100 million years." "Yet even in these extreme conditions,life quickly found a foothold." "Yet even in these extreme conditions,life quickly found a foothold."Very very quickly, Very very quickly, as soon as the Earth cooled off after its formation, we know that life began here. Because it happened quickly here on Earth, we think it is going to happen quickly on other planets as well. "The story of Earth gives us hope that life could be universally common." "It teaches us that life is fast acting, tenacious, and made of basic, common ingredients." "After 4 billion years of isolation, the search for our cosmic kin has finally begun." "Where there is water, there is life - and so our best chanceis to look for ocean worlds like Earth."

 "Our search for Earth-like planets has only just begun,and the findings are tantalizing." <b>KEPLER-62F</b> <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years. <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years.Size: 1.4x Earth. <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years.Size: 1.4x Earth.Temperature: ≥ -85ºF. <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years.Size: 1.4x Earth.Temperature: ≥ -85ºF.Age: ~7 billion years. <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years.Size: 1.4x Earth.Temperature: ≥ -85ºF.Age: ~7 billion years.Possible Water World <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years.Size: 1.4x Earth.Temperature: ≥ -85ºF.Age: ~7 billion years. <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years.Size: 1.4x Earth.Temperature: ≥ -85ºF. <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years.Size: 1.4x Earth. <b>KEPLER-62F</b>Distance: 1200 Light Years. <b>KEPLER-62F</b> <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b> <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years. <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years.Size: 0.77x Earth. <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years.Size: 0.77x Earth.Age: ~7.5 billion years. <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years.Size: 0.77x Earth.Age: ~7.5 billion years.Temperature: ≥ 20ºF. <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years.Size: 0.77x Earth.Age: ~7.5 billion years.Temperature: ≥ 20ºF.Possible Water World <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years.Size: 0.77x Earth.Age: ~7.5 billion years.Temperature: ≥ 20ºF. <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years.Size: 0.77x Earth.Age: ~7.5 billion years. <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years.Size: 0.77x Earth. <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b>Distance: 41 Light Years. <b>TRAPPIST-1D</b> <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b> <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years. <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years.Size: 1.07x Earth. <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years.Size: 1.07x Earth.Age: 8 billion years. <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years.Size: 1.07x Earth.Age: 8 billion years.Minimum temperature: ≥ 20ºF. <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years.Size: 1.07x Earth.Age: 8 billion years.Minimum temperature: ≥ 20ºF.Possible Water World <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years.Size: 1.07x Earth.Age: 8 billion years.Minimum temperature: ≥ 20ºF. <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years.Size: 1.07x Earth.Age: 8 billion years. <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years.Size: 1.07x Earth. <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b>Distance: 12 Light Years. <b>TEEGARDEN-B</b> <b>K2-18B</b> <b>K2-18B</b>Distance: 111 Light Years. <b>K2-18B</b>Distance: 111 Light Years.Size: 2.7x Earth. <b>K2-18B</b>Distance: 111 Light Years.Size: 2.7x Earth.Temperature: -100 -116ºF. <b>K2-18B</b>Distance: 111 Light Years.Size: 2.7x Earth.Temperature: -100 -116ºF.Confirmed atmospheric water vapor <b>K2-18B</b>Distance: 111 Light Years.Size: 2.7x Earth.Temperature: -100 -116ºF. <b>K2-18B</b>Distance: 111 Light Years.Size: 2.7x Earth. <b>K2-18B</b>Distance: 111 Light Years. <b>K2-18B</b> 

"We have barely scratched the surface.Nature's trove of secrets is bottomless." "We have barely scratched the surface.Nature's trove of secrets is bottomless."We know that the galaxy is awash in water. We know that the galaxy is awash in water. It’s awash in organic molecules, and complex chemistry. All of the things that we know were necessary for life to begin on this planet exist on abundance throughout the galaxy. Did something similar to what happened on our own planet happen on those other planets? "Looking at the raw numbers, the existence of alien life seems almost inevitable." "The latest data suggest that up to 1/4 of stars have rocky planetsorbiting in their habitable zone - the right distance for liquid water." "In our Milk Way galaxy alone, that's ~50 billion worlds like Earth." "In the entire universe, the possible number of habitable planets is staggering:" "In the entire universe, the possible number of habitable planets is staggering:"100,000,000,000,000,000,000. "Imagine each flash of light represents an Earth-like planet."

 "You would have to watch this animation for over a billion years to view them all." "Each one with a history as rich and unique as Earth." "Trillions and trillions of chemical soups, stewing for eons." There are more habitable Earth-mass planets in the observable volume of the universe than there are grains of sand on all the beaches on Earth. "Among this abundance of worlds,many will be deadly to life as we know it." "There will be planets in the habitable zone that arescorched, frozen, and suffocated by poison gases." "Many will lack an atmosphere, critical for temperature regulation,or have one that is deadly." "Venus, once thought to potentially support life,is now sterilized by a crushing, toxic atmosphere." "But life may not be confined to the habitable zone." "Far from the warmth of their star, the moonsof giant gas planets may be hidden oases for life." "Their energy comes not from starlight, but from gravity - the lurching push and pull of the host planet." "Icy Enceladus has it all: a huge subsurface oceanwith hydrothermal vents spewing the chemistry of life." "Titan is especially alluring - larger than Mercuryand speckled with methane lakes and organic compounds." "In 2026, NASA plans to send a drone to Titan,seeking out signs of life in its valleys and craters." "here may be 100 trillion exomoons in our galaxy alone - 100 times the number of planets."

 "Some may even be Earth sized,with atmospheres and surface water." "With so many places to find life, it seems only a matter of time before we make a discovery." "Some think we already have." "On June 30, 1976, the Viking lander on Marsfound something that still remains unexplained." "After being injected with nutrients, Martian sol samples expelled signature radioactive gas - just like soils from Earth." Sterilized Soil | Sterilized Soil | Sterilized Soil | Sterilized Soil | California Soil | Martian soil "Was this signal a natural phenomenon, or our firstencounter with alien biology?" The discovery of just one bacteria on Mars, or any other body of the Solar System would indicate that the whole chain of evolutions. Cosmic, chemical and biological, is at work everywhere. In that case, the creation of life anywhere in the universe would be more the rule than the exception. "If we haven't found life already, it may not be long until we do." "NASA scientists now think we are on the verge of discovery." "NASA scientists now think we are on the verge of discovery."Within all of our lifetimes we're going to understand "NASA scientists now think we are on the verge of discovery."that there is life on other bodies in the Solar System. that there is life on other bodies in the Solar System. We're going to understand the implications of that for evolution of life here on Earth.

 We're going to find planets around other stars that we can say we see potential signs of habitability in their atmospheres. That's all going to happen in the next 10 to 20 years. How exciting is that? We're on the verge of things that the people have wondered about for millennia: "Are we alone?" And here we are on the verge of finding that out. "If we do find life out there, what will we discover about ourselves?" "What chapter is Earth in the story of life?" The universe is nearly 14 billion years old. And our galaxy is something like 12 billion years old. So, there could be life out there that could be dramatically more advanced than the life that we have here on this planet. "Is Earth a latecomer on the cosmic stage?" "Just how ancient could life be?" 100 Thousand Years Ago 1 Million Years Ago 5 Million Years Ago 10 Million Years Ago 50 Million Years Ago 100 Million Years Ago 200 Million Years Ago 300 Million Years Ago 400 Million Years Ago 500 Million Years Ago 1 Billion Years Ago 2 Billion Years Ago 3 Billion Years Ago 4 Billion Years Ago 5 Billion Years Ago 10 Billion Years Ago 13.8 Billion Years Ago Event:

 The Big Bang "For its first few million years, the cosmos was too hot for life as we know it." "The ambient temperature would have boiled you alive." Event: The First Star "When it was finally cool enough for life, there were no stars and planetsOnly huge lumbering clouds of hydrogen." "After 70 million years, gravity took hold of these cloudsand spun them into the first generation of stars." "The first stars were massive and bright,but there was no life to watch them rise." "Vital heavy elements were still being forged in their hot stellar cores.Not even The Big Bang was hot enough to create them." "Vital heavy elements were still being forged in their hot stellar cores.Not even the Big Bang was hot enoughto create them."The only elements that were created on The Big Bang were hydrogen, The only elements that were created on The Big Bang were hydrogen, helium and a little bit of lithium. All the stuff that makes your life livable those elements weren't created on The Big Bang. The only place they were created is in the fiery cores of stars and the only way they could get into your body is if the stars were kind enough to explode. Event: Death And Rebirth "The explosive death of the first mid-sized starsseeded the cosmos with the ingredients for life." "From their ashes rose a second generation of suns -this time with rocky planets dancing around them." "This is the moment: the raw ingredients for life togetherfor the first time, ~13.7 billion years ago." "Some believe the conditions for life existed even earlier, in the warm afterglow of creation." "As the heat from the Big Bang faded,the universe passed through a goldilocks era." "Some 15 million years after time began,the ambient temperature reached a balmy 75º F (24º C)." "For millions of years, it was warm in all directions,like an endless summer day on Earth." "In theory, stars and planets could have formed this early on,in hypothesized ultra-dense regions of space." "If such regions existed, liquid water could have flowed abundantly,even on rogue planets far from any star."

 "Could this have been dawn of life?Alien beings feeding off the heat of the Big Bang?" "Somewhere out there may be a planet with lifenearly as old as the universe itself." "With a 10 billion year head start, the universe could be teeming withlife far more advanced than our own." "Despite decades of searching, no sign of alien lifehas ever been confirmed, intelligent or otherwise." "So where is everybody?" "Could we really be alone?" "Maybe primitive life is common, but intelligence is exceedingly rare." "Maybe space is just too vast for feasible communication." "Or maybe we are the first." "Could we be the opening chapter in a sprawling history of life?" 13.8 Billion Years 14 Billion Years 15 Billion Years 16 Billion Years 17 Billion Years 18 Billion Years 19 Billion Years 20 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 21 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 22 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 23 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 24 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 25 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 30 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 35 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 40 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 45 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 50 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 55 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 60 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 65 Billion Years"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 70 Billion Years

"The universe is young, and the vast majorityof planets have yet to be born." 80 Billion Years 90 Billion Years 100 Billion Years 110 Billion Years 120 Billion Years 130 Billion Years 140 Billion Years 150 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 200 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 250 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 300 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 350 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 400 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 450 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 500 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 600 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 700 Billion Years"The ingredients for life will be stewingfor another 100,000,000,000,000 years." 800 Billion Years 900 Billion Years 900 Billion Years"From this perspective, we are the dawn:the opening melody in a symphony of life." 1 Trillion Years"From this perspective, we are the dawn:the opening melody in a symphony of life." 2 Trillion Years"From this perspective, we are the dawn:the opening melody in a symphony of life." 4 Trillion Years"From this perspective, we are the dawn:the opening melody in a symphony of life." 8 Trillion Years"From this perspective, we are the dawn:the opening melody in a symphony of life." 16 Trillion Years"From this perspective, we are the dawn:the opening melody in a symphony of life." 32 Trillion Years"From this perspective, we are the dawn:the opening melody in a symphony of life." 32 Trillion Years 64 Trillion Years 70 Trillion Years 80 Trillion Years 90 Trillion Years 95 Trillion Years ~100 Trillion Years Later Event: Last Star Dies~100 Trillion Years Later "What might come long after us?" "Red dwarf stars can live up to 10 trillion years,bathing their planets in starlight for eons." "Life is much more probable on these time scales,where conditions are stable for vast periods of time."

 "Any beings living close to these stars would have to contendwith violent solar flares that continually threaten extinction." "Many of these planets would be tidally locked - one side permanentlyexposed to the sun, the other frozen in darkness." "But as Earth has taught us, life is remarkably adaptable." "What forms might life take when it has trillions of years to evolve?" "One day, somehow, the story of life will come to an end." "If we are the first chapter of that story, we have the chance to carry the torch of life far into the future." "And if biology does persist far into the future,then we live in a privileged moment." In later chapters, the universe will seem far different. "The expansion of spacetime will make distant stars invisible, and the night skies will go dark." "Perhaps life in the far future will wonder:What it was like to live in the universe's brilliant early days?" "We are lucky enough to know the answer."